The role of parental social class, education and unemployment on child cognitive development.

OBJECTIVE: Assessing the association between socioeconomic gradient and cognitive development among children of a Spanish birth cohort aged 5-6 years from a gender perspective. METHOD: Cognitive development was assessed on 525 children aged 5-6 years in the INMA-Valencia cohort, with the Global Cognitive Score (GCS) from McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. Information on social class, education level and employment was collected for both parents in addition to other sociodemographic factors, parental, family and child characteristics. The relationship between maternal and paternal socioeconomic gradient and cognitive development was assessed by linear regressions and comparing the variance explained by each indicator measured in the mother and father. RESULTS: Maternal socioeconomic gradient indicators explained more variance on GCS than paternal. Maternal education and paternal social class had an important individual effect that stayed after adjusting by other parental, child and family determinants. In the multivariable analysis, maternal education, age and intelligence, paternal social class and the child's age and sex were significantly associated with cognitive development. CONCLUSIONS: Diverse socioeconomic gradient factors have an important influence on cognitive development, maternal education being the strongest determinant. Policies should be implemented to mitigate the negative effects of this gradient on child development.

Impacto de um programa de competências parentais no stress e competências de atenção plena / Impacto de un programa de competencias parentales en el estrés y en competencias de atención plena / Effects of a parenting education program on parenting skills, parenting stress, and mindfulness skills

Resumo Objetivo: Analisar o impacto da frequência do Adults and Children Together Raising Safe Kids (ACT-RSK) Programe nas competências parentais, no stress parental e nas competências de atenção plena, de um grupo de pais de crianças. Métodos: Realizou-se uma investigação-ação, utilizando um pré e pós-teste, tendo por referência a implementação do programa ACT-RSK, em 8 sessões de 90 minutos com periodicidade semanal, numa amostra de 22 pais da região Centro de Portugal. Utilizaram-se os questionários do Programa ACT-RSK, o Índice de Stress Parental, a Escala de Mindfulness Interpessoal na Parentalidade e um questionário sociodemográfico. A análise descritiva e inferencial ( Wilcoxon ) foi realizada com recurso ao Statistical Package fos Social Sciences (SPSS - IBM 24), com grau de confiança de 95%. Resultados: Os participantes melhoraram, do pré para pós-teste, nas 4 dimensões do programa: estilos parentais (M=36.32±6.61 vs. M=48.50±4.31; p<0.01); meios de comunicação (M=24.73±3.90 vs. M=30.73±2.90; p≤0.01); desenvolvimento infantil (M=55.18±11.82 vs. M=73.55±4.04; p≤0.01); e comportamento dos pais (M=34.23±7.83 vs. M=43.05±2.81; p≤0.01). Destacam-se, igualmente, melhorias consideráveis nos resultados da Escala de Mindfulness Interpessoal na Parentalidade (Z=-3.929, p=0.000) e no stress parental, que desceu do nível muito elevado (91.59) para o nível médio (74.45). Conclusão: Constata-se o impacto positivo do ACT-RSK na melhoria das variáveis estudadas.

Resumen Objetivo: Analizar el impacto de la frecuencia del Adults and Children Together Raising Safe Kids (ACT-RSK) Programe en las competencias parentales, en el estrés parental y en las competencias de atención plena de un grupo de padres de niños. Métodos: Se realizó una investigación-acción utilizando un pretest y postest en la implementación del programa ACT-RSK, en 8 sesiones de 90 minutos con frecuencia semanal, en una muestra de 22 padres de la región Centro de Portugal. Se utilizaron los cuestionarios del programa ACT-RSK, el Índice de Estrés Parental, la Escala de Mindfulness Interpersonal en la Paternidad y un cuestionario sociodemográfico. El análisis descriptivo e inferencial ( Wilcoxon ) fue realizado con el Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS - IBM 24), con nivel de confianza de 95 %. Resultados: Del pretest al postest, los participantes demostraron una mejora en las cuatro dimensiones del programa: estilos parentales (M=36,32±6,61 vs. M=48,50±4,31; p<0,01); medios de comunicación (M=24,73±3,90 vs. M=30,73±2,90; p≤0,01); desarrollo infantil (M=55,18±11,82 vs. M=73,55±4,04; p≤0,01); y comportamiento de los padres (M=34,23±7,83 vs. M=43,05±2,81; p≤0,01). Además, se destacan mejoras considerables en los resultados de la Escala de Mindfulness Interpersonal en la Paternidad (Z=-3,929, p=0,000) y el en estrés parental, que se redujo de un nivel muy elevado (91,59) a un nivel medio (74,45). Conclusión: Se verifica un impacto positivo del ACT-RSK en la mejora de las variables estudiadas.

Abstract Objective: To analyze the impact of the Adults and Children Together Raising Safe Kids (ACT-RSK) Program in parenting skills, parenting stress, and mindfulness skills in a group of parents and children. Methods: This investigative intervention was based on the application of a pre-test and a post-test before and after the implementation of the ACT-RSK Program. The program consisted of eight weekly 90-minute sessions conducted with a sample of 22 parents from Central Portugal. The ACT-RSK Program questionnaires, Parenting Stress Index (PSI), Interpersonal Mindfulness in Parenting (IM-P) scale, and a socio-demographic questionnaire were used. A descriptive and inferential analysis (Wilcoxon) was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS, v. 24) with a 95% confidence interval. Results: Participants showed improvement from pre-test to post-test in all four program dimensions: Parenting Style (M=36.32±6.61 vs. M=48.50±4.31; p<0.01); Electronic Media (M=24.73±3.90 vs. M=30.73±2.90; p≤0.01); Child Development (M=55.18±11.82 vs. M=73.55±4.04; p≤0.01); and Parental Behavior (M=34.23±7.83 vs. M=43.05±2.81; p≤0.01). Likewise, significant improvement was seen in the Interpersonal Mindfulness in Parenting (IM-P) scale's results (Z=-3.929, p=0.000) and in parenting stress, which decreased from a very high (91.59) to a medium level (74.45). Conclusion: Data show the ACT-RSK had a positive effect and improved study variables.

Effectiveness of a parent-training program in Spain: reducing the Southern European evaluation gap.

OBJECTIVE: We implemented and evaluated the Parenting Skills Program for families in Spain 1) to examine differences in parenting skills, social support, children's behaviours and parental stress pre, immediately post and six months post intervention and 2) to identify mechanisms by which the intervention is related to changes in the four outcomes examined. METHODS: Quasi-experimental study design with pre (T0), post (T1), a follow-up (T2) and no control group, complemented by a qualitative study was used. The outcome variables were social support, parenting skills, parental stress and children's behaviours. 216 parents completed pre and post questionnaire and 130 parents the follow-up questionnaire. 39 professionals and 34 parents participated in 17 interviews and 5 discussion groups. RESULTS: Compared with T0, all four outcomes improved significantly at T1. 76% of the participants improved parenting skills and 61% social support. 56% reduced children's negative behaviours and 66% parental stress. All outcomes maintained this significant improvement at T2. Parents and professionals describe different changes in parents' parenting skills, stress and social support after participation in the PSP, and in their children's behaviours. Some subcategories emerged after analysing parents' and professionals' discourses. CONCLUSIONS: This study describes positive parenting effects on participants of a parent-training program in Spain, which is a country where implementation and evaluation of these kind of interventions is an incipient issue.

Programa de fortalecimiento parental en contextos de vulnerabilidad social: Una propuesta desde el ámbito escolar / Program of parental strengthening in contexts of social vulnerability: A proposal from the school environment

El trabajo que se informa destaca el rol relevante de la familia y del ejercicio adecuado de la parentalidad para el desarrollo humano. Dado que las competencias parentales estarían relacionadas con el contexto social, se describen las características de las familias en vulnerabilidad social, teniendo en cuenta los riesgos psicosociales a los que muchas veces están expuestas, las consideraciones culturales de lo que significa ser buenos padres y las propias experiencias de los progenitores o cuidadores en sus familias de origen. Se revisan diversas modalidades de programas de intervención familiar y parental, destacando la importancia del diseño, implementación y evaluación de estos programas en contextos de vulnerabilidad social. En este marco, y considerando que en Argentina existe un escaso desarrollo de programas de apoyo a las familias socialmente vulnerables, se presenta una propuesta de intervención aplicable en el ámbito escolar y dirigida a fortalecer las competencias parentales. El programa propuesto, basado en el enfoque de la parentalidad positiva, integra elementos de los modelos de intervención educativo y comunitario, ya que se implementa en forma grupal, mediante encuentros expositivo-participativos y en coordinación con la escuela a la que asisten los hijos de los beneficiarios. Como conclusión y en función de la experiencia obtenida por las interventoras y la observada en las madres participantes, se presenta una reflexión sobre las contribuciones de la intervención propuesta y los desafíos pendientes para futuras aplicaciones del programa.

This study stresses the significant role of the family and a proper parenting performance for human development. Parenting in itself is very complex, since it demands a balanced combination of several essential factors such as affection, communication, discipline, and the autonomy granted to children. Given the fact that parental skills would be related to a specific social context, a description of the characteristics of families in situations of social vulnerability is provided. Likewise, it is noteworthy that parenting development would depend on those cultural considerations implicated in the concept of being good parents, and the parents or caregivers’ own experiences of upbringing, temperament and resilience. Subsequently, the main modalities of family intervention programs are reviewed, highlighting the importance of design, implementation and evaluation of the former in contexts of social vulnerability. Within this frame work, and considering that in Argentine there are very few programs supporting families in social vulnerability, the main aim of this research is to present an intervention proposal to strengthen parenting skills applicable in the school setting. The proposed program, which is based in the approach of positive parenting, integrates elements from educational and community intervention models, since it is performed in groups, by means of participative and expositive meetings and in coordination with the school attended by the children of the project participants. The proposed intervention was based on two basic areas: (a) direct intervention for parents: the promotion of parenting skills (i.e., attachment, parental empathy, parenting style, positive communication and support networks) and (b) indirect intervention for children: training parents in strategies to promote children’s development of socio-emotional resources (e.g., positive emotions, prosocial behavior, etc.). The intervention was carried out in a school within a context of social vulnerability in the province of Entre Ríos (Argentina). The organization of the meetings was conducted by an interdisciplinary team (i.e., psychologists and educational psychologists). The topics addressed were agreed with the participants based on their interests and needs; a total amount of 30 meetings of 60 to 90 minutes each were carried out. The themes were as follows: parental and child self-esteem, appropriate expression of affection, positive communication and conflict resolution, positive emotions, the strengthening of cognitive resources, prosocial behavior, social skills, family, parental and child resilience, social support networks to families and family-school relationships. The main approach techniques used were: (a) information exposure, (b) peers' feedback and co-reflection, (c) modeling of attitudes and alternative behaviors, (d) task assignments and proposals for action, and (e) interviews after workshops. The research findings are related to those found by other intervention programs made with parents and caregivers in other countries. These preliminary results show that parenting skills, the type of relationship and even the attachment with the children could be modified through the implementation of programs of parental strengthening. Furthermore, the results showed that the program could also help to improve family-school relationships. In some cases, the intervention implemented aroused the interest of the participants in the schooling situation of their children, and at the same time it improved the communication among parents, teachers, and the people in charge of the school. The exploratory results of this proposal of intervention clearly show the need to support and implement these specific kinds of programs, which aim to strengthen the resources of parenting skills and encourage a healthy development of children. Based on the experience got from interventionists and participating mothers, a final consideration about the contributions of the proposed intervention and the possible future challenges observed after the implementation of the program is presented.

Efecto de una intervención de promoción de la parentalidad positiva sobre el estrés parental / How an Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting Affects Parental Stress / Efeito de uma intervenção de promoção da parentalidade positiva sobre o estresse parental

Fundamentos: los programas de educación parental, promotores de la parentalidad positiva, reducen el estrés parental. En España y Latinoamérica son escasas las evaluaciones que evidencian dichos efectos y en ningún caso exploran los predictores de éxito. Este estudio analiza los cambios producidos por el "Programa de desarrollo de habilidades parentales para familias" (PHP), basado en la educación parental y promovido por enfermeras comunitarias sobre el estrés parental, e identifica los factores sociodemográficos asociados a una mayor reducción de estrés. Métodos: se recogió información sociodemográfica de 257 participantes, antes de la intervención y de estrés parental antes y después de esta. Se empleó la versión española de Parental Stress Scale. Se aplicaron test no paramétricos y una regresión logística binaria. Resultados: el análisis bivariado identificó reducción del estrés parental para todas las categorías de las variables predictoras. El análisis multivariado mostró que los hombres, las personas con menor nivel de estudios y las desempleadas presentaron mayor probabilidad de reducir el estrés. Conclusiones: el PHP es una intervención efectiva para reducir el estrés parental en diferentes grupos poblacionales. Este estudio contribuye a reforzar los incipientes hallazgos de estudios internacionales, y a dar respuesta al vacío de los países latinos, en cuanto al papel de los determinantes sociales como predictores de la reducción del estrés parental generados por los programas de educación parental.

Fundamentals: Parental education programs, promoting positive parenting, reducing parental stress. Assessments that demonstrate these effects are rare in Spain and Latin America and in no case do they explore predictors of success. This study analyzes the changes in parental stress brought about by the "Parenting Skills Development Program for Families" (PSP), which is based on parental education, promoted by community nurses, and identifies the socio-demographic factors associated with added stress reduction. Method: Sociodemographic information was collected on 257 participants prior to the intervention and on parental stress before and after the intervention. The Spanish version of the Parental Stress Scale was used. A nonparametric test and binary logistic regression were applied. Results: A bivariate analysis identified a reduction in parental stress in all the categories of predictor variables. A multivariate analysis showed that men, as well as persons with lower levels of education and unemployed persons had more likelihood of reducing stress. Conclusions: PSP is an effective intervention to reduce parental stress in different population groups. This study helps to strengthen the incipient findings of international research and to respond to the void in Latin American countries concerning the role of social determinants as predictors of parental stress reduction generated through parental education programs.

Fundamentos: os programas de educação que promovem a parentalidade positiva reduzem o estresse parental. Na Espanha e na América Latina, são escassas as avaliações que evidenciam esses efeitos e, em nenhum caso, exploram-se os preditores de sucesso. Este estudo analisa as mudanças produzidas pelo "Programa de desenvolvimento de habilidades parentais para famílias (PHP)", baseado na educação parental e promovido por enfermeiras comunitárias, sobre o estresse parental; além disso, identifica os fatores sociodemográficos associados a uma maior redução de estresse. Métodos: coletou-se informação sociodemográfica de 257 participantes, antes da intervenção, e de estresse parental antes e depois desta. Empregou-se a versão espanhola de Parental Stress Scale e aplicaram-se testes não paramétricos e uma regressão logística binária. Resultados: a análise bivariada identificou redução do estresse parental para todas as categorias das variáveis preditoras. A análise multivariada mostrou que os homens, as pessoas com menor nível de escolaridade e as desempregadas apresentaram maior probabilidade de reduzir o estresse. Conclusões: o PHP é uma intervenção efetiva para reduzir o estresse parental em diferentes grupos populacionais. Este estudo contribui para reforçar os incipientes achados de estudos internacionais e dar resposta ao vazio dos países latino-americanos quanto ao papel dos determinantes sociais como preditores da redução do estresse parental gerados pelos programas de educação parental.

[Evaluation a parenting skills pilot programme from a public health perspective]. / Evaluación de un programa piloto promotor de habilidades parentales desde una perspectiva de salud pública.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the process and the results of the pilot phase of the Parenting skills development programme for families (PSP), an evidence-based strategy to promote positive parenting skills in socio-educational and community settings. METHODS: Before-after quasi-experimental design without a control group for the evaluation of the pilot phase of the PSD carried out in Barcelona (Spain) between October 2011 and June 2013. Eleven groups were established with the participation of 128 parents and 28 professionals. The intervention consisted of 10 or 11 sessions. Information was collected through questionnaires for parents and in-depth individual or group interviews for professionals. Parenting skills were identified through a questionnaire with six dimensions. The situation before the intervention (T0) and immediately after (T1) was compared. RESULTS: In T1 the number of participants decreased to 83 (retention=64.8%). Participants showed a high level of satisfaction with different dimensions of the program. On a maximum score of 10, the satisfaction of professionals was 8.7. Several key aspects and areas for improvement were identified for the future of the intervention. The quantitative analysis revealed improvements in all parenting skills dimensions and these improvements were consistent with the results of the qualitative analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the pilot phase of this program suggest that a universal intervention on parenting skills can improve wellbeing among parents.

Educação parental: estudo exploratório em um grupo de dança inclusiva / Parent education: exploratory study in an inclusive dance group / Educación parental: estudio exploratorio en un grupo de danza inclusiva

Neste trabalho avaliamos a eficácia do programa de educação parental Grupo Laços de Inclusão, implementado numa associação de arte inclusiva. Participaram no estudo 11 pais (três pais e oito mães) de crianças/jovens (nove com necessidades especiais e dois sem necessidades especiais) que frequentavam um grupo de dança inclusiva na Região Autónoma da Madeira (Portugal). Realizou-se uma avaliação pré-teste e pós-teste, cujos resultados parecem apontar para uma diminuição das perceções do stress global dos participantes, da exigência associada à interação com a criança e do nível de saúde dos pais que poderá interferir na relação com os filhos. Apesar de os resultados serem promissores nestas dimensões, são apresentadas algumas reflexões e limitações a ter em conta em futuras intervenções de educação parental.

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of a parent training program, Grupo Laços de Inclusão (Bonds of Inclusion Group), implemented in an association of inclusive art. In this study participated 11 parents (three fathers and eight mothers) of children/youngsters (nine with special needs and two without disabilities) attending an inclusive dance group in Madeira Island (Portugal). It was carried out a pre-test and a post-test evaluation. The results show a decrease in the parents' perceptions of global stress, demand associated with the interaction with the child, and parents' health that could interfere with the relationship with the children. Despite the promising results, we present some reflections and limitations to take into consideration in future parent education interventions.

El trabajo evalúa la eficacia del programa de educación parental Grupo Laços de Inclusão (Grupo Lazos de Inclusión), aplicado en una asociación de arte inclusiva, de la Región Autónoma de Madeira. Han participado en el estudio 11 padres (ocho madres y tres padres) de nueve niños/jóvenes con necesidades especiales y de tres niños/jóvenes sin ninguna necesidad especial. Se ha realizado una evaluación pre-test y post-test y los resultados previos indican para una disminución de la percepción: del estrés global de los participantes; de exigencias de como relacionarse con el niño; del nivel de la salud de los padres, que pueden interferir na relación con el niño. Aunque los resultados parecen ser positivos, todavia se destacan algunas limitaciones y se sacan reflexiones para futuras intervenciones de educación parental.

Presentación de una propuesta de formación de padres y madres de familia / Apresentação de uma proposta da educação de pais e mães de família / Presentation of a Training Proposal for Parents

Este artículo reporta las experiencias realizadas con los Talleres de Formación de Padres desarrollados durante el año 2011 por la Facultad de Psicología de la Universidad Católica del Uruguay. Se realizaron veinticuatro talleres en seis instituciones educativas católicas de Montevideo e Interior del país. Los objetivos de los talleres fueron: generar espacios de reflexión y participación entre los padres participantes, fomentar la creación de grupos de diálogo y fortalecer el vínculo institución educativa-familia. Participaron de la experiencia ciento treinta padres de alumnos de primer y segundo año de secundaria. La evaluación se realizó a través de cuestionarios cerrados para padres y referentes institucionales. Las principales conclusiones son: los padres participantes informaron que la educación de padres resulta necesaria para el desempeño de su rol y que la misma se ve fortalecida si las instituciones educativas apoyan y acompañan este proceso.

This paper reports the experiences obtained from the parent training workshops realized by the Faculty of Psychology of the Catholic University of Uruguay during the year 2011. Twenty four workshops have been made in six catholic educational institutes in Montevideo and the country’s inland. The objectives of the workshops were: to generate space for the reflection and participation among parents, stimulate the creation of dialogue groups and strengthen the bound between the educational institute and the family. One hundred and thirty parents of pupils from the first and second year of secondary school participated. The evaluation was realized through fixed-alternative questionnaires to parents and institutional reference figures. The main conclusions are: parents reported their need to be educated as parents and that parent education is strengthened when educational institutes support and accompany this process.

Este artigo relata as experiências realizadas a partir de Oficinas de Formação de Pais desenvolvidas em 2011 pela Faculdade de Psicologia da Universidade Católica do Uruguai. Vinte e quatro oficinas foram realizadas em seis instituições educativas católicas de Montevidéu e do país. Os objetivos das oficinas foram: criar espaços de reflexão e participação entre os pais, fomentar a criação de grupos de debate e fortalecer o vínculo entre instituição escolar e família. A experiência envolveu 130 pais de alunos de primeiro e segundo anos da Ensino Médio. A avaliação foi realizada através de questionários fechados para os país e las referências institucionais. As principais conclusões são: os pais participantes relataram que a educação de pais é necessária para o desempenho de seu papel e que a mesma resulta fortalecida caso as instituições educacionais apoiem e acompanhem este processo.